Children raised in fatherless families from infancy: a follow-up of children of lesbian and single heterosexual mothers at early adolescence

Abstract: Background: An increasing number of lesbian women and single heterosexual women are bringing up children with no male involvement. This study follows up to adolescence a sample of children raised in fatherless families from birth or early infancy. Methods: Twenty-five lesbian mother families and 38 families headed by a single heterosexual mother were compared with 38 two-parent heterosexual families. The quality of parenting by the mother, and the social and emotional development of the child, were assessed using standardised interview and questionnaire measures administered to mothers, children and teachers. Results: Children in fatherless families experienced more interaction with their mother, and perceived her as more available and dependable than their peers from father-present homes. However, there were no group differences in maternal warmth towards the children. Mothers raising their child without a father reported more severe disputes with their child than did mothers in father-present families. The children's social and emotional development was not negatively affected by the absence of a father, although boys in father-absent families showed more feminine but no less masculine characteristics of gender role behaviour. No major differences in parenting or child development were identified between families headed by lesbian and single heterosexual mothers. Conclusions: The presence or absence of a father in the home from the outset does appear to have some influence on adolescents‘ relationships with their mothers. However, being without a resident father from infancy does not seem to have negative consequences for children. In addition, there is no evidence that the sexual orientation of the mother influences parent–child interaction or the socioemotional development of the child.

本研究旨在探讨以下问题：父亲的缺席是否会影响儿童与母亲的关系质量？父亲的缺席是否会对儿童的社会和情绪发展产生负面影响？以及母亲的性取向（女同性恋或异性恋）是否会对母子互动或儿童的社会和情绪发展造成影响。

研究对象包括25个女同性恋母亲家庭、38个单身异性恋母亲家庭以及38个异性恋双亲家庭。研究通过对母亲、儿童和教师进行标准化访谈和问卷调查，评估母亲的育儿质量（如与孩子的互动和情感支持）以及儿童的社会和情绪发展（如性别角色行为和社会适应性）。

研究发现，无父家庭的儿童与母亲的互动更多，并且认为母亲比有父家庭的同龄人更可靠、更可依赖。尽管无父家庭的母亲与孩子之间的冲突更为严重，但母亲对孩子的情感支持程度并未显示组间差异。父亲的缺席对儿童的社会和情绪发展没有显著负面影响，但无父家庭的男孩表现出更多的女性化特征，同时不影响男性化特征。母亲的性取向（女同性恋或异性恋）对母子互动或儿童的社会情绪发展没有显著影响。